Author: Yemi Adewunmi

Imagine a trip to your local Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV). What do you picture? In the U.S., people commonly think of a long wait behind confused citizens who need help from overwhelmed staff members.

Thanks to e-government services, this experience may become a thing of the past. In many locations, people can renew their drivers’ licenses and vehicle registrations online. They can also pay vehicle taxes, order registration plates, and request their driving record without stepping foot in the DMV. In-person help is still available, but many people no longer need it.

E-government services are about more than just convenience. They also can help connect citizens to their governments, making it easier for them to engage with public services and civic life. Before getting into the benefits and drawbacks, let’s explore exactly what e-government means.

What Are E-Government Services?

These days, many people expect to be able to do business or receive services online. They can go shopping, pay bills, attend classes, and even see a doctor over the Internet. In this digital age, governments are increasingly responding to these expectations by providing e-government services.

E-government is the use of digital technology, especially the Internet and electronic communication, to deliver government services. It’s also known as “eGov” or “digital government” and can take many forms, including:

• G2G (Government-to-government): Sharing data between government agencies and enabling streamlined communication.
• G2B (Government-to-business): Business-focused services, including licenses, permits, and information about industry regulations.
• G2C (Government-to-citizen): Communication with and delivery of public services to citizens.

The E-Government Act of 2002 was a major step toward developing and improving e-government services in the United States. This law set standards for digital services provided by federal agencies and included privacy, security, and transparency provisions. This led to the creation of USA.gov, a central portal with information about a variety of federal programs and services.

Government bodies around the world have implemented e-government services in different ways. While the United States does not have a universal public healthcare system, its citizens can find health insurance and apply for subsidies at Healthcare.gov. In addition to many other services, the United Kingdom has set up a website where people can easily book visits with loved ones in prison. Estonia is the only country in the world to use nationwide online voting.

These digital government services have a number of benefits, but there are also challenges and costs to consider.

The Benefits of E-Government Services for Citizen Engagement

Convenience and efficiency may be the clearest benefits of e-government services. These benefits make it easier for citizens to engage with and participate in government. Digital services also can save governments and taxpayers money by reducing costs.

Improved Efficiency in Service Delivery

Thanks to e-government services, people can access many services at any time of day without needing to go to a physical location. They don’t spend time waiting in line. With more information available online, they may not need to ask staff members for help. If they forget some required documents, they haven’t wasted a trip or taken up anyone’s time; they can simply try again later. This speeds up service delivery considerably.

The government side of the transaction is also more efficient. Electronic documents can often be processed faster than physical paperwork. Automated processes can save previously entered information and quickly check for errors. Some governments may link different departments’ systems together, sharing data so that forms and files don’t need to be duplicated.

Enhanced Citizen Engagement and Participation

E-government services can make it easier for citizens to engage with their governments and participate in civic life. This is especially true when they enable two-way communication between governments and their citizens.

For example, the city of Boulder, Colorado, hosts petitions on its website and allows its citizens to digitally sign them.

Some state agencies and local governments allow remote access to their meetings. Citizens who can’t physically come to the county seat or town hall can attend meetings online. Sometimes they can even submit public comments remotely. This includes more people in the process of government, regardless of their ability to physically appear at a meeting.

Cost Savings for Governments

When more transactions are handled online, governments need to pay fewer staff members to provide services in person. Digital documents can be processed more easily and quickly, causing fewer delays and preventing costly errors during review. Electronic service delivery also reduces paperwork and its associated costs, such as printing and mailing. 

Challenges of Implementing E-Government Services

When implementing e-government services, agencies need to account for common challenges. Both citizens and government agencies may have a hard time adjusting to changes and new technologies. Cybersecurity risks could more easily expose government and citizen data. These challenges can be overcome with care and attention.

The Digital Divide Among American Citizens

Not all citizens have the same access to technology. Some may not be able to afford the devices they need to take advantage of e-government services. They also may not have broadband internet access, either due to cost or their remote location.

Gaps in digital literacy and ability can also cause this divide. Some citizens have a hard time navigating websites, phone applications, and online forms. They may not know how to use these tools, or they might have disabilities that make it hard to use them.

Because of these factors, low-income, rural, senior, disabled, and other citizens may be at a disadvantage as public service delivery moves online. Governments will need to make accessibility a priority to bridge this divide. They may hold outreach events to help people use digital services, add disability-friendly features to their website, and make efforts to expanding Internet access to their citizens.

Cybersecurity Concerns

Any online service should be protected by appropriate cybersecurity measures. This is especially true with e-government services, when citizens may be trusting the system with sensitive information. A data breach could threaten an agency’s security, expose the private information of citizens, and damage public trust in government systems going forward.

Governments that are not used to providing services electronically must set up and maintain secure systems with proper encryption and protection. Employees should know how to use secure forms of authorization, handle electronic information appropriately, and avoid opening suspicious emails and links.

Resistance to Change Within Government Agencies

Adapting to new technologies can be difficult. Some government agencies have used the same systems and processes for many decades, and there may be a lot of resistance to changing them. After all, the digital divide applies to governments, too. Employees who are less familiar with technology may not trust e-government systems or be confident in their ability to use them.

While going digital often saves money in the long run, it can carry a big upfront cost for things like equipment, training, and public outreach. This can make it hard for agencies with limited funds to implement e-government services. Elected officials may not approve budget requests for them, especially if it would mean raising taxes. To help recoup these costs, some agencies charge small convenience fees for online services.

Types of E-Government Services for Citizen Engagement

Various types of e-government services can increase citizen engagement. They can make certain transactions easier, such as:

• E-filing tax returns
• Registering to vote
• Applying for a birth, death, or marriage certificate
• Registering a vehicle or land title
• Paying fines or utility bills

The government also can provide information to citizens electronically, like:

• Meeting schedules and minutes
• Public service information
• Election information and voting instructions

All of these services allow citizens to engage with their own governments from home — or wherever they happen to be. Some take it a step further, encouraging greater interaction and participation. They might do this by:

• Providing searchable databases for laws, regulations, and other public documents
• Inviting public comment and feedback through online portals
• Livestreaming public meetings

One example is Regulations.gov, a website of the United States government. Visitors to the website not only can look up proposed federal regulations, but also can submit and view comments.

Of course, these will only increase citizen engagement if the citizens know about them. Outreach efforts and education are an important factor.

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In the digital age, democracy faces many challenges. Many factors have undermined trust in our democratic institutions. This includes disinformation and threats against electoral integrity. Strengthening electoral systems and countering disinformation is imperative. Without these efforts, the integrity of the democratic process is at risk. In this blog, we explore key policy measures to address these challenges.

Disinformation Poses a Threat to Resilient Democracies

Disinformation poses a significant threat to the integrity of democratic elections. Malicious political actors, unreliable sources, technological interference, and fringe groups all play a role, exploiting digital platforms to disseminate false information, manipulate public opinion, and undermine trust. Social media manipulation and coordinated propaganda campaigns have exacerbated the problem. With all that’s at play, it’s become difficult to distinguish fact from fiction.

The impact of disinformation on democratic elections is profound. Disinformation:

• Erodes trust in electoral processes
• Polarizes public discourse
• Undermines the legitimacy of elected leaders
• Disengages people from participation

Protecting Electoral Integrity: Policy Responses and Best Practices

Addressing the threat of disinformation requires a multi-faceted approach. Leaders must combine policy interventions, technological solutions, and civic engagement efforts. Governments, civil society organizations, and tech companies must work together. Critical policy responses and best practices include:

Protecting Voting Rights

Voting is a core tenet of democracy. Unprotected voting rights damage the core values of our democracy. Efforts to protect voting rights are multifaceted. First, its necessary to safeguard existing rights from threats. Beyond that, efforts to expand voting rights must be implemented. All citizens, including marginalized communities, must be able to exercise their right to vote. Efforts to expand voting rights might include:

• Automatic voter registration
• Early voting opportunities
• Measures to combat voter intimidation and discrimination

Combating Voter Suppression

Beyond ensuring that voting rights are available, combatting voter suppression is key. Voter suppression tactics include, among others:

• Restrictive voter ID laws
• Gerrymandering
• Purges of voter rolls

To combat suppression efforts, leaders must strengthen enforcement mechanisms and judicial oversight. Doing so helps ensure compliance with voting rights laws. It also protects the integrity of elections.

Strengthening Cybersecurity

Strengthening cybersecurity is a key aspect of preventing disinformation. This involves investing in robust measures to protect electoral infrastructure from cyber threats. Cyber threats include actions such as hacking, malware, and phishing attacks. Strengthening cybersecurity might include securing:

• Voter registration databases
• Election management systems
• Communication channels used by election officials.

Enhancing Transparency in Political Advertising

Enhancing transparency in political advertising is another key aspect of countering disinformation. Doing so involves implementing regulations to increase transparency and accountability in political advertising. This is especially important on digital platforms. Efforts might include requiring disclosure of funding sources. Further, making targeting criteria and ad content more transparent can also help voters better understand the origins of and intentions behind ads.

Regulating Social Media Platforms

Holding social media companies accountable is also crucial. Many social media companies play a role in disseminating disinformation and facilitating malicious activities, albeit indirectly. Holding them accountable might include implementing regulations to:

• Curb the spread of false information
• Combat fake accounts and bots
• Promote algorithmic transparency and accountability

Promoting Media Literacy

Further, it’s essential to equip citizens with the skills necessary to identify disinformation. Doing so might involve investing in education programs to promote media literacy. Teaching individuals how to assess information and navigate digital environments is key. With the tools and knowledge to identify misinformation, individuals can become more discerning consumers and creators of online content.

Supporting Independent Fact-Checking

Finally, it’s necessary to prioritize fact-checking organizations and initiatives. Strengthening these efforts aids in:

• Debunking false information
• Verifying facts
• Counteracting the spread of misinformation

These efforts might include providing resources and training to journalists, fact-checkers, and researchers. With the right tools and training, organizations and individuals can identify and refute false claims in real-time.

International Cooperation and Diplomacy in Countering Disinformation

Election-related disinformation doesn’t start and end in the United States. Countering disinformation requires international cooperation and diplomacy. Collaboration is necessary to share information, coordinate responses, and promote democratic values. Governments, international organizations, and civil society groups should all be involved. Key initiatives and partnerships include:

Global Information Sharing

Sharing information related to disinformation and threats to democracy is key. Leaders must work together to establish mechanisms for sharing intelligence, best practices, and technical expertise. Strengthening international partnerships and information-sharing networks facilitates rapid responses to emerging threats.

Diplomatic Engagement

Diplomacy to promote transparency, accountability, and respect for democratic principles is also key. This engagement involves interacting with both foreign governments and international organizations. Leaders must advocate for international norms and standards to govern the use of digital technologies. Strong norms and standards prevent malicious actors from exploiting vulnerabilities in democratic systems.

Support for Democratic Institutions

Finally, supporting resilient democracies abroad is integral to bolstering American democracy. American leaders must support international democratic institutions, civil society organizations, and independent media. This is especially crucial in countries facing threats to electoral integrity and democratic governance. Support for democratic institutions can also include:

• Investing in capacity-building programs
• Technical assistance
• Election monitoring efforts

These measures help strengthen democratic resilience and promote free and fair elections worldwide.

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In his farewell address, U.S. President George Washington gave a fervent warning against the dangers of political parties. The nation’s first President worried that disagreements between factions would lead to bitter division, encourage corruption, and invite foreign influence.

Though many Founding Fathers agreed at first, they almost immediately began to form political parties. Today, parties play an important role in the political system of the United States. Washington warned of their dangers, but they also have benefits. Political parties:

• Unite people to achieve common political goals
• Help voters learn about candidates and elected officials
• Encourage civic participation

Throughout the course of their history, U.S. political parties have changed a great deal. Examining their past can help you understand their role today.

The History of U.S. Political Parties

Political parties are groups with common political interests that seek to win government elections. U.S. political parties have a history as old as the country itself, but its Constitution did not account for them. Today’s party structure and functions developed over time, starting with the American Revolution.

U.S. Political Parties in the 19th Century

Washington was the only nonpartisan president in American history. Political parties started to emerge in the United States soon after the Revolutionary War.

The Federalist Party supported a strong federal government and the creation of a national bank. The party came together around the views of Alexander Hamilton in 1792 or 1793. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison organized in opposition, forming the Democratic-Republican Party. The Democratic-Republicans saw the Federalists as elitist and called for limited government.

Parties first played a role in a presidential election in 1796. Federalist John Adams narrowly defeated Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican. Before the next election in 1800, members of each party in Congress met to nominate their own candidates. Adams and Jefferson faced off again, and this time, Jefferson won.

The Federalists failed to gain mass support and disappeared in the early 19th century. The Democratic-Republicans split into the Democratic Party and the short-lived National Republican Party, which then joined with others to form the Whig Party. Democrats at this time supported a small central government and low tariffs, and they opposed the national bank. Whigs wanted a strong national government, higher tariffs on imports, and more public works programs.

The Whigs could not agree on the topic of slavery, though. The party broke apart as this issue gained prominence in the 1850s. The Republican Party then emerged in 1854 with an anti-slavery platform. Their presidential candidate, Abraham Lincoln, won the election of 1860. Lincoln then led the country through the American Civil War, preserving the union when Southern states seceded over their right to allow slavery. From that point forward, the two major parties in the United States were the Democrats and the Republicans.

Major Parties vs. Minor Parties

The United States has had a two-party system since the mid-1800s. There is no law establishing two major parties — or any political parties at all. It happened naturally, as different groups fought for victory in the nation’s winner-take-all elections.

Other parties continue to exist, though. These minor parties have changed throughout history, but they have always been a feature in U.S. politics.

Major Parties

The two largest parties in the United States are the Republican and Democratic parties. Since their beginnings, they have changed their platforms and base of support multiple times.

The Democratic Party began in the late 1820s championing individual liberty, states’ rights, and a limited central government. They supported slavery and appealed to more rural Southern voters.

The Republican Party began in the 1850s to oppose the expansion of slavery in America. This new party supported a strong central government, the national bank, and high tariffs on imported goods. Republicans quickly gained support in Northern states.

After the stock market crash of 1929, Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidency with his plan for recovery from the Great Depression. His “New Deal” focused on job creation, social welfare programs, and economic reforms. This expanded the role of the federal government and shifted the Democratic Party toward favoring greater regulation and a social “safety net.” The increasingly pro-business Republican Party opposed the New Deal.

The next big shift began in 1964, when Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law. His Republican opponent in that year’s election, Barry Goldwater, spoke out against it. Because of Goldwater’s statements on civil rights, most of the Republican party’s black voters left to join the Democrats.

Goldwater and other Republicans had developed a “Southern Strategy” to appeal to white conservative Democrats in the South. This region was historically a Democratic stronghold, but Goldwater won several states there in the 1964 presidential election. He lost in almost every other state, as well as the election itself. Republican President Richard Nixon had more success with the Southern Strategy. In 1972, he won nearly every state and two-thirds of the popular vote.

In modern times, the Republican Party supports conservative social and economic policies, limited federal government, and deregulation. The modern Democratic Party calls for social liberalism, a strong federal government, and robust social services.

Minor Parties

Parties other than the Republicans and Democrats are known as minor parties or third parties. As of 2024, the largest minor parties in the country are the Libertarian Party, Green Party, and Constitution Party.

Minor parties occasionally win seats in local governments, state governments, and Congress. In Congress, third-party candidates typically caucus with a major party, meaning they generally vote together on legislation.

These parties generally do not win presidential elections, but they can influence them. Major parties may adopt minor party positions into their own platforms to gain votes. Rarely, minor parties have had a significant impact on presidential election results.

Former President Theodore Roosevelt left the Republican Party in 1912 to form the Progressive or “Bull Moose” Party. He did this to challenge sitting Republican President William Howard Taft, but the two split the Republican vote. Democrat Woodrow Wilson won the presidency, with Taft coming in third.

In 1992, Ross Perot ran as an Independent — with no political party at all — and received 19 percent of the popular vote. President Bill Clinton, a Democrat, won with 43 percent and Republican George H.W. Bush took 37 percent. Perot ran again in 1996 as a Reform Party member and received about eight percent of the popular vote.

The 2000 Presidential election was so close that Ralph Nader’s Green Party candidacy may have changed the winner. Republican President George W. Bush won over Democrat Al Gore, who liberal Green Party voters would more likely support.

Multiple minor party contenders appeared on ballots in 2016, when Republican President Donald Trump was elected over Democrat Hillary Clinton. Libertarian Gary Johnson received just over three percent of the popular vote, with the best third-party performance since Perot. Jill Stein earned one percent of the vote as a Green Party candidate. It is unclear whether these candidates changed the outcome, though.

The Function and Structure of U.S. Political Parties

In the U.S., the main functions of political parties include:

• Recruiting and nominating candidates for office
• Fundraising to help their candidates get elected
• Encouraging people to vote for their candidates
• Giving voters an easier way to choose between candidates
• Helping elected members achieve the party’s goals

American political parties do not tend to have official rosters or membership requirements. Anyone can declare themselves a member of any political party. Though political parties started out as loosely organized factions, they became more structured over time.

U.S. Political Parties at the Federal vs. State Levels

At the federal level, the major parties have national committees that set the party’s platform — their issue positions and goals. They hold conventions to nominate presidential candidates. However, they do not run their nominees’ campaigns. Instead, they support the campaigns of candidates for President and key elections in Congress.

State chapters of political parties do much the same thing for state-level and Congressional elections. They also name electors for the Electoral College that chooses the President. If the party wins their state, electors pledge to cast their votes for the party’s candidate. The number of electors is equal to the number of the state’s members of Congress.

At the local level, parties focus on local elections and grassroots organizing. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, local political parties played a large role in their communities. They wielded significant power and influence through a patronage system that rewarded party loyalty. Political reforms have weakened them over the past several decades.

Political parties also take part in primary elections or caucuses to determine their nominees. Until the 20th century, nominees were chosen by party leaders. Primaries for presidential elections began in a few states in the early 1900s. They allowed party members to vote to choose delegates to send to the national convention. Today, most state governments hold primaries, while some allow parties to hold their own caucuses. These elections allow people to vote for candidates they want a party to nominate. In Presidential and Congressional elections, parties send delegates to their national conventions based on primary and caucus results.

Once elected, officials work with other members of their party to achieve common goals. They often vote together, especially on important issues in their party platform. They may work against the opposing party or compromise with them to pass legislation.

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While the United States Constitution was not written until 1787, American constitutional history began well before then. From the nation’s beginnings as a collection of British colonies to its declaration of independence and beyond, many historical developments played a role in the development of the Constitution and constitutional history from 1787 until now.

The Constitution is the supreme law and foundation for the government of the United States of America. It gives an outline of the government’s structure, assigns separate powers to its three branches, and protects the rights of America’s people. To understand constitutional history, it helps to go back to our nation’s colonial roots.

Early American Colonies and Their Role In Constitutional History

While the 13 American colonies were under British control, they each had their own governmental system. These were structured based on the type of colony:

• In royal colonies, the king of England directly appointed a governor. Colonists elected a representative assembly with some legislative power.
• Proprietary colonies fell under the authority of a proprietor, who had been given the land in exchange for service to the crown. This individual appointed the governor.
• Charter colonies were owned by companies. They were allowed more self-governance, including the election of governors and legislators. They could create their own laws, as long as they did not conflict with those set by the English government.

In practice, the colonies were left to manage most of their own affairs. They began to get used to representative government and the enjoyment of certain freedoms. The colonists’ British background reinforced this. British philosophers John Locke and William Blackstone, along with other Enlightenment thinkers, argued for individual freedoms and against oppressive governments. The framers of the Constitution took inspiration from Britain’s Magna Carta, a charter of rights signed by King John of England in 1215. Their Bill of Rights was inspired in part by the English Bill of Rights of 1689. Both include the freedom of speech, the right to bear arms, the right to a jury trial, and the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment.

As independence grew nearer, a few colonies drafted their own constitutions. Along with state constitutions drafted later, these would greatly influence the Constitution of the United States.

The Road to Independence and The Development of Constitutional History

By the 1760s, colonists began to push back against what they saw as unfair British control and taxation. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, leading to protests with the slogan, “no taxation without representation.” After the British Parliament placed new tariffs on a variety of imported goods, tensions erupted in violence. During the Boston Massacre of 1770, British soldiers shot into a crowd of a few hundred angry colonists, killing five.

In 1773, Boston colonists dumped an entire shipment of taxed tea into the harbor. Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by passing the Intolerable Acts. These acts punished Massachusetts by taking away the colony’s charter and limiting its self-governance.

Great Britain had hoped this would discourage any more protests or rebellions. It did the opposite. The Congress published a list of the colonies’ grievances and called for a boycott of British goods. It also petitioned the king, who rejected the colonies’ demands. The Congress also petitioned the king, who rejected its demands.

As the Revolutionary War began, the Second Continental Congress met in 1775 and discussed breaking away from British rule. In 1776, Congressional delegates drafted and passed the Declaration of Independence.

This Declaration expressed several of the new nation’s principles and values, including:

• Natural rights — people are born with certain rights that should not be violated
• Popular sovereignty — a government gets its power from the people it governs
• Social contract — people agree to give up power to their governments in exchange for protection of their freedoms
• Rule of law — the laws of the land apply to everyone, and no one is above them

The Articles of Confederation

At the same time they declared independence, Congressional delegates began drafting a document to form the government of the United States of America. The result was the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, which took effect in 1781.

The Articles of Confederation granted much power to the state governments and little to the federal government. There was no national executive and no central court system, only a legislative body. The former colonists wanted to avoid a national government with too much power.

A weak central government brought its own set of problems, though. Under the Articles of Confederation, the federal government could not levy taxes. Only states had this power. Congress could only request money from the states. States often did not fulfill these requests, leaving the federal government unfunded and unable to pay its debts.

The national paper currency lost its value, so some of the states started printing their own. This complicated trade between the states and with other countries. States also began to tax items from other states, putting up barriers to trade within the new nation. The federal government had no real power to regulate foreign or interstate commerce.

Congress also failed to repay those who fought in the Revolutionary War as it had promised. This included farmers in western Massachusetts, who faced large debts and rising state taxes. These farmers revolted against their state government in 1786 and 1787. Massachusetts had to stop Shays’ Rebellion on its own, because the federal government didn’t have enough money for army recruitment.

A mix of these factors led people to call for a revision of the Articles of Confederation. This form of government had to change.

The Constitutional Convention of 1787

Delegates from 12 of the 13 states met in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Rhode Island did not send any delegates. They elected George Washington, former commander of the Continental Army, as president of the convention. Some delegates aimed to revise the Articles of Confederation, while others wanted to create a new constitution. Several brought forward competing plans.

The New Jersey Plan

The “New Jersey Plan” was a proposed revision allowing state governments to keep most of their power. It would give the federal government greater power to levy tariffs, collect taxes, and regulate interstate commerce. The Confederation Congress would remain unicameral, with one chamber, and each state would have one vote.

The Virginia Plan

James Madison was one of the delegates calling for a new form of government. His “Virginia Plan” proposed a strong national government and weaker states. It called for a bicameral legislature with two chambers, both apportioned by population. The lower house would be directly elected by the people. It would then elect members of the upper house from candidates nominated by state legislatures.

The Connecticut Compromise

Delegates from large states liked the idea of apportioning Congress by population. Those from small states protested, wanting equal representation for each state. The “Connecticut Compromise” used both ideas. Representation would be equal in the Senate and proportional in the House of Representatives.

The Three-Fifths Compromise

This still didn’t settle the matter. Southern delegates wanted slaves to count for representation, while northern states did not. They eventually agreed on the “Three-Fifths Compromise,” which said three-fifths of a state’s slave population would count when apportioning representatives to the House.

As the debates went on, the form of the United States government took shape. It would be a representative democratic republic with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. A system of checks and balances would help each branch ensure that the others do not gain too much power.

The Ratification Process

The new U.S. Constitution still had a long way to go. Delegates signed the document and presented it to Congress, who approved it. For it to become law, at least nine of the 13 states needed to ratify it. Each state held conventions to discuss the proposed new government and take a vote.

Those who supported the new Constitution were called federalists, while anti-federalists opposed it. The anti-federalists were concerned about the strength of the proposed national government. They began to publish anonymous articles in the press criticizing the Constitution.

In response, congressmen James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay wrote a series of anonymous essays arguing in favor of the Constitution. These 85 essays became known as the Federalist Papers. They explained how the new government would work and the reasoning behind the Constitution.

Still, some states struggled to ratify the Constitution. Many people worried that it did not do enough to protect citizens’ rights and liberties. George Mason of Virginia and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts had proposed adding a Bill of Rights, but most Constitutional Convention delegates did not agree. Later, the Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York conventions would agree to ratification only if certain amendments were added. The U.S. Constitution came into force in 1789 with 11 states included.

During the first United States Congress, James Madison proposed a series of constitutional amendments. Congress approved 12 amendments and the states ratified 10 of them. Together, these 10 amendments form the United States Bill of Rights. They include protections for the freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and other civil liberties. More amendments have been proposed and added over time, meaning constitutional history continues to this day.

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